Areni-1 Shoe (The Oldest Leather Shoe In World), History Museum of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia

The Areni-1 shoe is a 5,500-year-old leather shoe that was found in 2008 in excellent condition in the Areni-1 cave located in the Vayots Dzor province of Armenia. It is a one-piece leather-hide shoe, the oldest piece of leather footwear in the world known to contemporary researchers. The discovery was made by an international team led by Boris Gasparyan, an archaeologist from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the National Academy of Sciences of Armenia. 

 

An Armenian post-graduate student, Diana Zardaryan, discovered the leather shoe in the course of excavations by a team of archeologists from Armenia’s Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Ireland and the United States. The shoe was found upside down at the base of a shallow, rounded, and plastered pit that was 45 cm (18 in) deep and 44–48 cm (17–19 in) wide, beneath an overturned broken Chalcolithic ceramic bowl. A broken pot and goat horns also were found nearby. Excavations in the same area also found the world's oldest wine-making site. 

Shoe is made of a single piece of leather and was shaped to fit the wearer's foot, the researchers say. They have published details of the discovery from south-east Armenia in the journal Plos One. The shoe contained grass, although the archaeologists are uncertain as to whether this was to keep the foot warm or to maintain the shape of the footwear. The authors are unsure whether it was worn by a man or a woman. The shoe is relatively small, corresponding to a UK women's size 5 (European size 38; US size 7 women), but it could have been worn by a man of that period. It was discovered at the Areni-1 cave in the Vayotz Dzor province of Armenia, which borders on Turkey and Iran.

 

 

 

 

The archaeologists put the shoe's remarkable preservation down to the stable, cool and dry conditions in the cave and the fact that the floor of the cave was covered by a thick layer of sheep dung. This layer of excrement acted as a solid seal, preserving it over the millennia.

Major similarities exist between the manufacturing technique and style of one-piece leather-hide shoes discovered across Europe and the one reported from Areni-1 Cave, suggesting that shoes of this type were worn for millennia across a large and environmentally diverse geographic region. According to Pinhasi, the Areni-1 shoe is similar to the Irish pampootie, a shoe style worn in the Aran Islands up to the 1950s. The shoes are very similar to the traditional shoes of the Balkans, still seen today in festivals, known as Opanci (Opanke).

When the material was dated by the two radiocarbon laboratories in Oxford and California, it was established that the shoe dates back to 3,500 B.C. This date is a few hundred years older than the date given for the leather shoe found on Ötzi the Iceman, 400 years older than those found at Stonehenge, and 1,000 years older than those found at the Great Pyramid of Giza. After having been treated for preservation, the Areni-1 shoe is on display at the History Museum of Armenia, Yerevan.

The Underwater Waterfall: A Natural Illusion in Mauritius

The underwater waterfall of Mauritius is one of the most stunning natural phenomena in the world. Located near the southwestern tip of this picturesque island nation, this illusion captivates tourists and photographers alike. While it’s not a real waterfall plunging into the depths, the optical effect of cascading water is no less mesmerizing. Here’s a detailed dive into the science, location, and cultural significance of this fascinating feature.

 

Underwater Waterfall located at the Southwestern tip of the island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean you will find a fascinating illusion. It is caused by the trails of sand on the sea floor being dragged away by water going between the opening in the reefs (La Passe). When viewed from above, the runoff of sand and silt deposits creates the incredibly spectacular impression of an ‘underwater waterfall’. Satellite views are equally dramatic, showing an underwater vortex seemingly appearing off the coast of this tropical paradise. 

What Is the Underwater Waterfall?

The underwater waterfall is an optical illusion created by sand and silt sliding off an underwater shelf into the depths of the Indian Ocean. When viewed from above, especially from a helicopter or drone, this phenomenon looks like a vast cascade of water plunging into an abyss.

 Location

• Where: The underwater waterfall is located off the coast of Le Morne Brabant, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Mauritius.

• Geography: Le Morne Brabant is a peninsula surrounded by turquoise lagoons and coral reefs. Beyond the reef, the seabed drops steeply, contributing to the illusion.
  

 How Does It Work?

1. Underwater Topography:

   • The seabed near Le Morne Brabant features a steep drop-off, known as an ocean shelf. Beyond the shelf, the depth dramatically increases, creating an abyssal zone.
   • Sand and silt naturally move along the ocean floor due to currents, giving the impression of cascading water.

2. Optical Illusion:

   • The movement of sand and silt combines with the contrast between shallow, light-colored lagoon waters and the deep blue of the ocean to create the illusion of a waterfall.
   • The effect is amplified when viewed from above, as sunlight enhances the varying colors of the water.

Why Is It Unique?

• Rare Phenomenon: While other underwater drop-offs exist, few create such a striking visual effect.
• Aerial Perspective: The illusion is best appreciated from the air, making helicopter tours a popular activity for visitors to Mauritius.
• Unspoiled Beauty: The pristine environment around Le Morne Brabant adds to the allure of the site, making it a top destination for nature lovers and photographers.

The Science Behind It

• Ocean Currents: The underwater currents around Mauritius are responsible for the constant movement of sand and silt, maintaining the illusion.
• Light Refraction: Differences in depth and water clarity cause light to refract differently, adding to the visual effect of flowing water.

Cultural and Historical Significance

• Le Morne Brabant:
  • This mountain is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognized for its historical importance. It served as a refuge for runaway slaves in the 18th and 19th centuries.
  • The underwater waterfall lies near this culturally rich landmark, tying natural beauty with human history.
• Mauritius Tourism:
  • The underwater waterfall has become a symbol of Mauritius's natural wonders, attracting visitors from around the globe.

How to Experience the Underwater Waterfall

1. Helicopter Tours:

   • Aerial tours offer the best view of the illusion. Operators in Mauritius provide guided flights that include this breathtaking feature.
   • Flights often cover Le Morne Brabant, nearby lagoons, and the coral reef systems.

2. Boat Excursions:

   • While the illusion is most dramatic from above, boat tours around the lagoon allow visitors to appreciate the turquoise waters and surrounding landscapes.

3. Scuba Diving and Snorkeling:

   • Though the illusion cannot be seen underwater, the area offers excellent diving opportunities to explore coral reefs and marine life.

Environmental Considerations

• Marine Ecosystem:
  • The area is part of a fragile marine ecosystem. The coral reefs surrounding Mauritius are home to diverse species of fish, turtles, and other marine organisms.
• Sustainable Tourism:
  • Tourists are encouraged to respect the environment by avoiding damage to coral reefs and supporting eco-friendly tour operators.

Interesting Facts

1. Misconceptions:
   • Many believe the underwater waterfall is a real plunge of water into the depths. In reality, it’s entirely an optical illusion caused by natural factors.
2. Geological Origins:
   • Mauritius is a volcanic island, and the underwater shelf is a remnant of ancient lava flows that shaped the region millions of years ago.
3. Iconic Photography Spot:
   • The underwater waterfall is a favorite subject for aerial photographers, often featured in travel magazines and social media posts about Mauritius.

Conclusion

The underwater waterfall near Le Morne Brabant is a natural illusion that combines geology, oceanography, and visual artistry. It symbolizes the breathtaking beauty of Mauritius and serves as a reminder of the intricate interplay between nature’s elements. Whether you’re an adventurer, a photographer, or someone seeking awe-inspiring sights, the underwater waterfall is a must-see destination that will leave you spellbound.

The Panama Canal, Panama

The Panama Canal waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit for maritime trade. Canal locks are at each end to lift ships up to Gatun Lake, an artificial lake created to reduce the amount of excavation work required for the canal, 26 m (85 ft) above sea level, and then lower the ships at the other end. The original locks are 32.5 m (110 ft) wide. A third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began commercial operation on June 26, 2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, neo-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo.

The construction of the Panama Canal is where the expression "Another Day, Another Dollar" comes from, as the workers were rumored to be paid a dollar a day for their labor. France began work on the canal in 1881, but stopped because of engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15, 1914. One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, the Panama Canal shortcut greatly reduced the time for ships to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, enabling them to avoid the lengthy, hazardous Cape Horn route around the southernmost tip of South America via the Drake Passage or Strait of Magellan and the even less popular route through the Arctic Archipelago and the Bering Strait.

Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The US continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999, the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government. It is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority.

Annualtraffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, when the canal opened, to 14,702 vessels in 2008, for a total of 333.7 million Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System (PC/UMS) tons. By 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes 11.38 hours to pass through the Panama Canal. The American Society of Civil Engineers has ranked the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world.

 

 

By the 1930s, water supply became an issue for the canal, prompting construction of the Madden Dam across the Chagres River above Gatun Lake. Completed in 1935, the dam created Madden Lake (later Alajeula Lake), which provides additional water storage for the canal. In 1939, construction began on a further major improvement: a new set of locks large enough to carry the larger warships that the United States was building at the time and planned to continue building. The work proceeded for several years, and significant excavation was carried out on the new approach channels, but the project was cancelled after World War II.

After World War II, US control of the canal and the Canal Zone surrounding it became contentious; relations between Panama and the United States became increasingly tense. Many Panamanians felt that the Canal Zone rightfully belonged to Panama; student protests were met by the fencing-in of the zone and an increased military presence there. Demands for the United States to hand over the canal to Panama increased after the Suez Crisis in 1956, when the United States used financial and diplomatic pressure to force France and the UK to abandon their attempt to retake control of the Suez Canal, previously nationalized by the Nasser regime in Egypt. Panamanian unrest culminated in riots on Martyr's Day, January 9, 1964, when about 20 Panamanians and 3–5 US soldiers were killed.

A decade later, in 1974, negotiations toward a settlement began and resulted in the Torrijos–Carter Treaties. On September 7, 1977, the treaty was signed by President of the United States Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos, de facto leader of Panama. This mobilized the process of granting the Panamanians free control of the canal so long as Panama signed a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the canal. The treaty led to full Panamanian control effective at noon on December 31, 1999, and the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) assumed command of the waterway. The Panama Canal remains one of the chief revenue sources for Panama.

Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a 25-year contract for operation of the container shipping ports located at the canal's Atlantic and Pacific outlets. The contract was not affiliated with the ACP or Panama Canal operations and was won by the firm Hutchison Whampoa, a Hong Kong–based shipping interest owned by Li Ka-shing.

 

The size of the locks determines the maximum size ship that can pass through. Because of the importance of the canal to international trade, many ships are built to the maximum size allowed. These are known as Panamax vessels. A Panamax cargo ship typically has a deadweight tonnage (DWT) of 65,000–80,000 tonnes, but its actual cargo is restricted to about 52,500 tonnes because of the 12.6 m (41.2 ft) draft restrictions within the canal. The longest ship ever to transit the canal was the San Juan Prospector (now Marcona Prospector), an ore-bulk-oil carrier that is 296.57 m (973 ft) long with a beam of 32.31 m (106 ft).

Initially the locks at Gatun were designed to be 28.5 m (94 ft) wide. In 1908, the United States Navy requested that an increased width of at least 36 m (118 ft) to allow the passage of US naval ships. Eventually a compromise was made and the locks were built 33.53 m (110.0 ft) wide. Each lock is 320 m (1,050 ft) long, with the walls ranging in thickness from 15 m (49 ft) at the base to 3 m (9.8 ft) at the top. The central wall between the parallel locks at Gatun is 18 m (59 ft) thick and over 24 m (79 ft) high. The steel lock gates measure an average of 2 m (6.6 ft) thick, 19.5 m (64 ft) wide, and 20 m (66 ft) high. Panama Canal pilots were initially unprepared to handle the significant flight deck overhang of aircraft carriers. USS Saratoga knocked over all the adjacent concrete lamp posts while passing through the Gatun Locks for the first time in 1928. It is the size of the locks, specifically the Pedro Miguel Locks, along with the height of the Bridge of the Americas at Balboa, that determine the Panamax metric and limit the size of ships that may use the canal. The 2006 third set of locks project has created larger locks, allowing bigger ships to transit through deeper and wider channels. The allowed dimensions of ships using these locks increased by 25 percent in length, 51 percent in beam, and 26 percent in draft, as defined by New Panamax metrics. 

Despite having enjoyed a privileged position for many years, the canal is increasingly facing competition from other quarters. Because canal tolls have risen as ships have become larger, some critics have suggested that the Suez Canal is now a viable alternative for cargo en route from Asia to the US East Coast. The Panama Canal, however, continues to serve more than 144 of the world's trade routes and the majority of canal traffic comes from the "all-water route" from Asia to the US East and Gulf Coasts. 

 

For more Information  - Panama Canal

The Phi Phi Islands, Malacca Coast, Thailand

The Phi Phi Islands are an island group in Thailand, between the large island of Phuket and the Straits of Malacca coast of Thailand. The islands are administratively part of Krabi Province. Ko Phi Phi Don is the largest and most populated island of the group, although the beaches of the second largest island, Ko Phi Phi Le are visited by many people as well. The rest of the islands in the group, including Bida Nok, Bida Nai, and Bamboo Island (Ko Mai Phai), are not much more than large limestone rocks jutting out of the sea. The islands are reachable by speedboats or long-tail boats most often from Krabi town or from piers in Phuket Province.

Phi Phi Don was initially populated by Muslim fishermen during the late-1940s, and later became a coconut plantation. The resident Thai population of Phi Phi Don remains more than 80 percent Muslim. The current population however if counting transient workers is more Buddhist than Muslim. The resident population is between 2,000 and 3,000 people (2013).

The islands came to worldwide prominence when Ko Phi Phi Le was used as a location for the 2000 British-American film The Beach. This attracted criticism, with claims that the film company had damaged the island's environment, as the producers bulldozed beach areas and planted palm trees to make it more resemble descriptions in the book, an accusation the film's makers contest. An increase in tourism was attributed to the film's release, which resulted in increased environmental degradation. Phi Phi Le is home to the "Viking Cave", where there is a thriving industry harvesting edible bird's nests. Ko Phi Phi was devastated by the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004, when nearly all of the island's infrastructure was destroyed. 

 

 

There are six islands in the group known as Phi Phi. They lie 40 kilometres (25 miles) southeast of Phuket and are part of Hat Nopparat Thara-Ko Phi Phi National Park. The national park covers an area of 242,437 rai (38,790 ha). which is home to an abundance of corals and marine life. There are limestone mountains with cliffs, caves, and long white sandy beaches. Phi Phi Don and Phi Phi Le are the largest and best-known islands. Phi Phi Don is 9.73 square kilometres (3.76 square miles): 8 kilometres (5.0 miles) in length and 3.5 kilometres (2.2 miles) wide. Phi Phi Le is 2 kilometres (1.2 miles). In total, the islands occupy 12.25 square kilometres (4.73 square miles).

There are two administrative villages on Ko Phi Phi under the administration of the Ao Nang sub-district, Mueang Krabi District, Krabi Province. There are nine settlements under these two villages.

The villages are:

Laem Thong ( between 300-500 people)

1. Ban Ko Mai Phai (about 20 fishermen live on this island)
2. Ban Laem Tong
3. Ao Loh Bakhao
4. Ao Lana

Ko Phi Phi ( between 1,500 - 2,000 people)

1. Ao Maya (about 10 people, mostly in the ranger station)
2. Ton Sai, the capital and largest settlement
3. Hat Yao
4. Ao Lodalum
5. Laem Pho

Hat Noppharat Thara - Mu Ko Phi Phi National Park is influenced by tropical monsoon winds. There are two seasons: the rainy season from May till December and the hot season from January till April. Average temperature ranges between 17–37 °C (63–99 °F). Average rainfall per year is about 2,231 millimetres (87.8 inches), with wettest month being July and the driest February.

 

There is a small hospital on Phi Phi Island for emergencies. Its main purpose is to stabilize emergencies and evacuate to a Phuket hospital. It is between the Phi Phi Cabana Hotel and the Ton Sai Towers, about a 5–7 minute walk from the main pier. 

The islands feature beaches and clear water, and the natural environment is protected by national park status. Tourism on the islands exploded since the release of the movie The Beach.

Rani ki Vav, Patan, Gujarat, India

Rani ki Vav or Ranki vav is a stepwell situated in the town of Patan in Gujarat state of India. It is located on the banks of Saraswati river. Its construction is attributed to Udayamati, daughter of Khengara of Saurashtra, queen of the 11th-century Chaulukya dynasty and spouse of Bhima I. Silted over, it was rediscovered in 1940s and restored in 1980s by the Archaeological Survey of India. It has been listed as one of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites since 2014.

The finest and one of the largest example of its kind and designed as an inverted temple highlighting the sanctity of water, the stepwell is divided into seven levels of stairs with sculptural panels; more than 500 principle sculptures and over a thousand minor ones combine religious, mythological and secular imagery.

Rani ki vav was constructed during the rule of the Chaulukya dynasty. It is located on the banks of Saraswati river. Prabandha-Chintamani, composed by the Jain monk Merutunga in 1304, mentions: "Udayamati, the daughter of Naravaraha Khangara, built this novel stepwell at Shripattana (Patan) surpassing the glory of the Sahastralinga Tank". According to it, the stepwell was commissioned in 1063 and was completed after 20 years. It is generally assumed that it was built in the memory of Bhima I by his queen Udayamati and probably completed by Udayamati and Karna after his death but the view, whether she was a widow when she commissioned it, is disputed. Commissariat puts the date of construction to 1032 based on the architectural similarity to Vimalavasahi temple on Mount Abu built in the same year.

The stepwell was later flooded by the nearby Saraswati river and silted over. In 1890s, Henry Cousens and James Burgess visited it when it was completely buried under the earth and only well shaft and few pillars were visible. They called it huge pit measuring 87 metres (285 ft). In Travels in Western India, James Tod mentioned that the material from the stepwell was reused in the other stepwell built in modern Patan, probably Trikam Barot ni Vav (Bahadur Singh stepwell). In 1940s, the excavations carried out under the Baroda State revealed the stepwell. In 1986, the major excavation and restoration was carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). An image of Udayamati was also recovered during the excavation. The restoration was carried out from 1981 to 1987.

Rani ki vav is declared the Monument of National Importance and protected by the ASI. It was added to the list of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites on 22 June 2014. It was named India's "Cleanest Iconic Place" at the 2016 Indian Sanitation Conference. Rani ki vav is considered as the finest and one of the largest example of stepwell architecture in Gujarat. It was built at the height of craftsmens’ ability in stepwell construction and the Maru-Gurjara architecture style, reflecting mastery of this complex technique and beauty of detail and proportions. The architecture and sculptures is similar to the Vimalavasahi temple on Mount Abu and Sun temple at Modhera. It is classified as a Nanda-type stepwell. It measures approximately 65 metres (213 ft) long, 20 metres (66 ft) wide and 28 metres (92 ft) deep. The fourth level is the deepest and leads into a rectangular tank 9.5 metres (31 ft) by 9.4 metres (31 ft), at a depth of 23 metres (75 ft). The entrance is located in the east while the well is located at the westernmost end and consists of a shaft 10 metres (33 ft) in diameter and 30 metres (98 ft) deep. The stepwell is divided into seven levels of stairs which lead down to deep circular well. A stepped corridor is compartmentalized at regular intervals with pillared multistory pavilions. The walls, pillars, columns, brackets and beams are ornamented with carvings and scroll work. The niches in the side walls are ornamented with beautiful and delicate figures and sculptures. There are 212 pillars in the stepwell.

There are more than 500 principle sculptures and over a thousand minor ones combine religious, mythological and secular imagery, often referencing literary works. The ornamentation of stepwell depicts the entire universe inhabited by gods and goddesses; celestial beings; men and women; monks, priests and laity; animals, fishes and birds including real and mythical ones; as well as plants and trees.

The stepwell is designed as an underground shrine or inverted temple. It has spiritual significance and represents the sanctity of water. The sculptures in stepwell depicts numerous Hindu deities including Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, goddesses (Devi), Ganesha, Kubera, Lakulisha, Bhairava, Surya, Indra and Hayagriva. The sculptures associated with Vishnu outnumbers all which include Sheshashayi Vishnu (Vishnu reclined on thousand hooded snake Shesha in the celestial ocean), Vishwarupa Vishnu (Cosmic form of Vishnu), twenty four forms as well as Dashavatara (ten incarnations) of Vishnu. The sculptures of deities with their families such as Brahma-Savitri, Uma-Maheshwar and Lakshmi-Narayan are there. Notable among other sculptures are Ardhanarishwara as well as large number of goddesses such as Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati, Chamunda, Durga/Mahishasurmardini with twenty hands, Kshemankari, Suryani and Saptamatrikas. There are images of Navagraha (nine plantets) as well.

There are a large number of celestial beings (Apsaras). One sculpture of Apsara depicts either applying lipstick to her lips or chewing on aromatic twig while a man is tickling her feet. On the northern side of the third storey pavilion, there is a sculpture of an Apsara warding off a monkey clinging to her leg and pulling at her clothes, revealing her seductive body. At her feet, there is a nude female with a snake around her neck probably representing an erotic motif. A sculpture of Nagkanya (serpent princess) with long hair and swan as well as sculptures of celestial dancers in classical dance positions are there.

There are large number of sculptures portraying women in their everyday life and activities. One sculpture depicts a woman combing her hair, adjusting her earring and looking herself in the mirror. Another sculptures include a woman writing a letter, a young woman with scorpion climbing her right leg and her clothes sliding off unknowingly, a young woman pulling a beard of a dwarf-like man, a woman with fish plate in her hands with a snake encircling her leg and reaching out to fish. One sculpture depicts a young women coming out of bath with her wet hair and a swan catching droplets of water falling from her hairs as if they are pearls. These women sculptures are adorned with jewelry including bangles, earrings, necklaces, waist girdles, anklets and others as well as with elegant clothes and well combed hairs. The variety of expressions and emotions are depicted in them. They represent beauty as well love in its sublime and seductive form signaling eroticism. There are sculptures representing maternal love such as a woman holding her child and pointing to moon to divert his attention, a woman raising her child high to let him pick a mango from tree, a woman in a mango grove with children with her.

There are gradually increasing cantilevered brackets in the well shaft which are profusely ornamented. There kalpavriksha carvings on the wall repents fertility and nature worship while kirtimukhas and makaras adorn the basements and capitals of pillars. On the northern side wall of entrance of the stepwell, there are geometric lattice patterns and designs resembling designs of local textile tradition of Patola. They may have been adapted from the wood carvings and the ceilings of the temples. Animal figures of horses, elephants and lions are used as decoration of pillars and basement moldings.